VEDAS (1500-500 BCE)

                                   VEDAS

INTRODUCTION

Vedas, meaning “knowledge,” were written in Vedic Sanskrit between 1500 and 500 BCE in the northwestern region the Indian Subcontinent. The Vedas were transmitted orally during the course of numerous subsequent generations before finally being archived in written form. Not much is known about the authors of the Vedas, as the focus is placed on the ideas found in Vedic tradition rather than those who originated the ideas. The oldest of the texts is the Rig Veda, and while it is not possible to establish precise dates for each of the ancient texts, it is believed the collection was completed by the end of the 2nd millennium BCE (Before Common Era).

 There are four  Vedas: the Rig Veda contains hymns about their mythology; the Sama Veda consists mainly of hymns about religious rituals; the Yajur Veda contains instructions for religious rituals; and the Atharva Veda consists of spells against enemies, sorcerers, and diseases. Rig Veda or Rigveda (MOST IMPORTANT COLLECTION).

The Rig Veda is the largest and considered the most important of the collection, containing 1,028 hymns divided into 10 books called mandalas. The verses of the Sam Veda are taken almost completely from the Rig Veda, but arranged differently so they may be chanted. The Yajur Veda is divided into the White and Black halves and contains prose commentaries on how religious and sacrifices should be performed. The Atharva Veda includes charms and magic incantations written in the style of folklore.

Each Veda was further divided in two sections: the Brahmanas, i
nstructions for religious rituals, and the Samhitas, mantras or hymns in praise of various deities. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita, the most ancient layer of text in the Vedas, to have been composed by many authors over several centuries of oral tradition.

TYPES OF VEDAS

Rig Veda(the book of mantra)

The Rig Veda is the oldest of the four Vedas. It consists of hymns which are generally thought to have been composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE, although this chronology has been challenged lately, and it is possible that they are significantly older. The other three include the Samaveda, the sacrificial chants, the Yajurveda, the sacrificial formulas, and the Atharva Veda which is a compendium of miscellany consisting of spells, cures and curses. They were orally transmitted via a complex process of multiple, overlapping methods of memorization, which insured their preservation throughout the ages. The Vedas are considered to be the central scriptures of Hinduism, and are still studied, chanted and revered by many Hindus today.

• The composition of the Veda is attributed to families of ten rishis that have contributed to the curation of the majority of the lineage. These include the hymns from each clan as well as other religious text for rituals and customs. There are primarily two known schools of the text called as the Sakalya and the Baskala which include the Brahmanas and Upanishads.

• The Rig Veda is an amalgamation of four major components. This includes the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aryankas and the Upanishads.

• The Samhitas are the texts involving the hymns to the deities and constitute the oldest section of the Rig Veda. The Brahmanas are the section pertaining to the commentaries for the hymns. This section is particularly referred to as the Rigveda Brahmana while the popular reference to Rig Veda, in general, is to the Samhitas. The Aryankas are also known as the forest books and the Upanishads include other verses of religious text.

• The Veda is composed of ten Mandalas each of which serves significant purposes. The primary purpose is seen as hymns in the praise of the Hindu deities. There is a documentation of the stories of different Hindu gods and goddesses including Surya, Indra, Rudra, Vayu, Agni, Vishnu, and other Hindu deities. These are the oldest forms of documentation that form a foundation for the Hindu beliefs.

• The stories within the Rig Veda called the Suktas were a reflection of the Hindu philosophy and belief system. They were used for ritualistic purposes in marriages and other religious ceremonies. There are other interesting iterations of the Suktas which were purposed to drive away illness and other forms of negativity from one‘s life.

• The Veda also speaks about issues of morality and the right societal behaviour. It tackles important issues of the time like gambling and the right measures for good governance. It served both as a religious source as well as a moral guide in the Vedic and post Vedic times.

• There is a significant mention of the geographical beauty of the subcontinent with some Mandalas. The hymns pertain to the different seasons and talk about each of the significant rivers flowing through the Indus Valley. It is a very important source of evidence for the geographical structure of the subcontinent in the Vedic era. There are several other purposes like cures to different diseases, knowledge of weapons and shields, mentions of the rains and other seasons, etc. that the Veda carries forward through the centuries

 

• The instructions of the Veda influenced life in the subcontinent for the years to come. It presents the rightful duties of the different classes which were followed and deep-rooted in the society for centuries. The importance of religion and goodwill are the fundamental highlights of the compilation. It has several mentions on the significance of worship, sacrifices and religious rituals.

The Veda and its scriptures are so deep-rooted that some other verses and texts are memorized and recited even today at auspicious occasions. These prayers and verses are therefore the world’s oldest religious scriptures that are continued to be used in the present day scenario.

There are primarily five schools or shakhas of the Rig Veda out of which only two have survived to the recent times. The interactions of the sounds and the phonetics were crucial towards preserving its truest form. It is interesting to learn that the Rig Veda wasn’t written down right until the 4th century AD and yet it was possible to preserve it within the walls of the Hindu culture. The oldest manuscript of the Veda is in Brahmi script which was the popularly used dialect when the language was preserved as text.

Sama Veda(the book of songs)

The Sama Veda is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (‘saman’). The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. As Vedic Scholar David Frawley puts it, if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning, if Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization, if Rig Veda is the wife, and the Sama Veda is her husband. 

  Sama Veda was meant for the priests who performed the rituals of the soma ceremonies [rituals of the threefold realm of life and death(samsara)]. As time went on rituals and ceremonies of worship became increasingly comlex and so a need arose to compile all the rituals and their chants in a book, as a sort of reference point for the priests. The emphasize was on the specific style of its poetry and and its literary content had no relevance. there are also very strict instructions in samaveda as to how particular hymns must be sung. great emphasize was put upon sounds of the words of the mantras so that they could have accomplished effects on the environment and the person who pronounces them.

Sama Veda" should not be read or recited, but sung. It contains about 1,900 verses, almost all of them taken from the "Rig Veda".

Yajur Veda(the book of ritual)

Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is principally in prose form. The word ‘Yajush‘ in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one of its definitions says –

Yajur Yajateh’ talks about its relation with the sacrifice (Yajna) because both the terms are derived from the root. ‘Yaj ‘.

The Yajurveda is more pronouncedly a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the Adhvaryu priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary from the selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations to the sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the Udgata priest, so the Yajurveda-Samhitas are the prayer-books for the Adhvaryu priest. It is solely meant for the purposes of sacrificial rituals.

The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the concept of Prana and Manas also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.

Atharva Veda(the book of spell)

The last of the Vedas, this is completely different from the other three Vedas and is next in importance to Rig-Veda with regard to history and sociology. A different spirit pervades this Veda. Its hymns are of a more diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language. In fact, many scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a clearer picture of the Vedic society. 

According to the etymology of the Nirukta, Atharvan is the name given to a stable-minded person who is immovably firm i.e., Yogi. The oldest name, however, by which this Veda is known in Indian literature is ‘Atharvangirasa-Veda’, that is the ‘Veda of the Atharvans and the Angiras’. Angiras too were a group of schools and priests.

According to Patanjali, Atharvaveda had nine Shakhas, but the Samhita of the Atharvaveda is today available only in two rescensions – the Shaunaka and the Paippalada. It is the Shaunaka-Samhita that is frequently meant when the Atharvaveda is mentioned in ancient and modern literature. It is a collection of 730 hymns containing 5987 Mantras, divided into 20 books (Kandas). Some 1200 verses are derived from the Rigveda. About one sixth of the text of the Atharvaveda including two entire books (15 and 16) is written in prose, similar in style and language to the Brahmanas, the rest of the text is in poetic verses.

Some traditions prescribe that this Veda should be known as Brahma Ritvik who used to supervise the process of Yaga or sacrifice. In sacrificial ceremonies he was supposed to know all the three Vedas, but usually he used to represent the Atharvaveda. Due to his association, the Atharvaveda is also named ‘Brahmaveda‘, the Veda of Brahma priest.

The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian medicine. It is believed to be the origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of medicine. There are a series of Mantras related to cure various physical and mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for protection from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and application of medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes the Atharvaveda from the rest of the Vedas.

Philosophical portions of this Samhita present a fairly high development of metaphysical thought. The chief ideas of the Upanishads, the conception of a highest god as creator and preserver of the world (Prajapati), and even the ideas of an impersonal creative principle, besides a number of philosophical terms such as Brahman, Tapas, Asat, Prana, Manas must have been the common property of large circles – at the time when these hymns originated. Therefore, the study of the philosophical ideas, revealed in the Atharvaveda, is important to understand the development of Indian Philosophical thought.

Philosophical portions of this Samhita present a fairly high development of metaphysical thought. The chief ideas of the Upanishads, the conception of a highest god as creator and preserver of the world (Prajapati), and even the ideas of an impersonal creative principle, besides a number of philosophical terms such as Brahman, Tapas, Asat, Prana, Manas must have been the common property of large circles – at the time when these hymns originated. Therefore, the study of the philosophical ideas, revealed in the Atharvaveda, is important to understand the development of Indian Philosophical thought.

Atharvaveda is the only Veda which is related to both worldly happiness and spiritual knowledge. Vedic commentator Sayana has praised this for fulfilling both ends – this world and the other world. Thus, it appears to be an interesting text for a general reader of the Vedic literature.

THE  SAMHITAS

The Samhitas form the first part of each of the Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras, so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras or hymns were concerned with the nature and the deities. The ancient man worshipped the elements of nature as deities though it is believed that these deities are symbolic.

Generally, the mantras are addressed to the Gods and Goddesses. Some Western scholars believe that the Vedic man used the mantras in sacrificial ceremonies and for performing mystic rituals. This may be true for a number of mantras. Apparently, many mantras or hymns were meant for devotional or ceremonial purposes. In fact, they seem to be symbolic and need exceptional scholastic efforts to decipher them.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati made extraordinary efforts to bring out the significance of the mantras of the Vedas. Shri Aurobindo also challenged the Western philosophers and opined that the mantras are found to express esoteric truths which the Westerners cannot grasp. He strove hard to elucidate the cryptic meanings of the Vedic words and the hymns.

The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita.

The Rig-Samhita contains the mantras or the hymns known as ‘richas’. These hymns are metered verses. The Sam-Samhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant for liturgy or public worship. The Yajur-Samhita contains verities of mantras composed in the poetical and the prose forms. The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant for routine rites and rituals.

THE  BRAHMANAS

The Brahmanas constitute the second part of the Vedas.

With the passage of time, the newer generations found the mantras of the Samhitas difficult to understand. An elaborate explanation of the mantras became necessary. The result was the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are explanatory in nature.

The Brahmanas, the second part of the Vedas, are mostly in prose. The word ‘Brahmana’ has its root in the word ‘brahman’ which means ‘prayer’ or ‘devotion’. The word ‘brahman’ is distinct from the word ‘Brahman’ which means ‘the immanent Power’. The Brahmanas hint at ‘the magic’ or ‘the secret power’ of the sacrificial rituals.

The Brahmanas are concerned with the religious rites and rituals. But their covert meanings often baffle the researchers. The Indian scholars differ from their Western counterparts.

The Rig Veda has two Brahmanas – Aitereya Brahmana and Shankhayana Brahmana.

The Shat-Patha Brahmana of Yajur Veda is the largest of all the Brahmanas of all the Vedas.

THE  ARYANAKAS

The Aranyakas form the third part of the Vedas. However, it should be noted that the Aranyakas are sometimes considered as parts of the Brahmanas.

The Sanskrit word ‘aranya’ means a forest.

The Aranyakas were developed by the hermits, living in the forests. Due to the limited resources in the forests, they could not perform the conventional sacrifices, nor could they adhere to the rituals. It was then that the Aranyakas were developed.

With the advent of the Aranyakas, the emphasis on the sacrificial rites seems to be diluting. The shift towards philosophic and spiritual interpretation of the rituals and ceremonials is evident.

The Aranyakas reflect an explicit transition in the philosophy of life of man. The speculative and intuitive thinking seems to be developing. Meditative thinking is conspicuous. The Vedic man seems to be turning from the gross to the subtle. His quest for knowledge seems to be intensified.