Pallava dynasty (3rd - 9th AD)

ORIGIN OF THE PALLAVAS 

There are many theories regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some scholars consider that the Pallavas were foreigners. According to this theory, the Pallavas were the descendents of the Persians who invaded North India. But many scholars do not accept this theory.

The theory that the Tamil country had been the original home of the Pallavas is based on the story of Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan. He was considered to be a descendent of the Chola-Naga tribes. However, the Tamil origin for the Pallavas has been ruled out on many counts.

It is generally considered that the Pallavas had migrated to the Tamil region from North India. While in North India, they served under the Mauryas. After the decline of the Mauryas, the Pallavas migrated to the Andhra region. Before coming to the Tamil Country, they stayed in the Andhra region for some time and served under the Satavahanas. Subsequently, they established the Pallava kingdom in Thondaimandalam by overthrowing the Kalabhras.

Early Pallavas

 Pallavas rose to the power during the later part of the Ikshvaku rule in Andhra. Pallava king, Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra ,which was known at that time as „ Karmarashtra ‟and started as a political power in south India. It is believed that Simhavarma ( 280- 335 CE ) was the founder of this dynasty and Sivaskandavarman who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century CE seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas. His dominions extended from the Krishna to the South Pennar and upto the Bellary district. He had performed several Vedic sacrifices. Vishnugopa was the next important Pallava ruler. During his reign Samudragupta invaded South India and defeated him. The „Allahabad Pillar Inscription‟ mentions that during the annexation of Samudragupta during 345-350 CE Vishnugopa was the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram. The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Chola king Karikala Chola during the time of Trilochna Pallava (350 – 360 CE). This resulted in establishing Karikala‟s authority over some parts of the Andhra region. Nandivarman I was the last of the early Pallava kings. During his time the Pallava kingdom experienced the invasion of the Kalabhras.

THE PALLAVAS 

With the decline of the Shathavahanas, Shivaskandavarma emerged in the South Indian political scenario. He is supposed to be the founder of the Pallavas. He made Kanchi his capital and extended his kingdom from the Krishna River to the north of the Arabian Sea in the west. However, some Prakrit edicts suggest that Simhavarman prececdcd Shivaskandavarrrun, The Pallavas are mentioned in Sumudragupla’s pillar, where he is said to have defeated a Pallava king Vishnugopa. The chronology of the Pallava kings is sketchy, but texts suggest that they were powerful between AD 330 and 550 and the-noteworthy rulers during this period were Simhavarma I, Sikandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Skandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Sinihavarma III and Vishnugopa. After Vishnugopa’s defeat to Samudragupta, the Pallavas became weaker and the Cholas and the Kalabhras repeatedly attacked the Pallava kingdom and robbed it of wealth and territories. It was Simhavishnu, son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhra dominance in AD 575 and re-established his kingdom. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdom were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. The Pallava history between AD 600 and 900 is full of accounts of wars between the Pallava and the Chalukya rulers.

Some of the important

Some of the important rulers and their wars with the contemporary Chalukya rulers are:King Mahendravarma (ruled from AD600-630)—fought the first battle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas and was defeated by Pulakesin II. NarasimhavarmaMamalla—son of Mahendravitrma, ruled from ad 630 to 668, remembered as one of the rnost powerful kings of the Pallava Dynasty, he waged many wars against the Chalukyas and defeated them atPollahur, Periyala and Surmara. The scene of the battle between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas has been carved on the rocks near the Mallikarjunaswamy temple near Badami. Later, he was defeated by the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin II). He was succeeded by Mahendravarma II who was killed in a battle against Vikramaditya I.

Rulers of the Pallava Empire 

Sivaskanda Varman 

● Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled at the beginning of the 4th century AD.

● Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices. 

Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD – 600 AD) 

● Was a Buddhist. 

● Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom. 

● Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a definite character from this ruler onwards. 

Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD) 

● Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father. 

● He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa Prahasana. 

● He introduced rock-cut temple architecture. 

● Was a Jain who converted to Saivism. 

● Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty. 

● Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and efficient ruler. 

Narasimhavarman I (630 AD – 668 AD) 

● Son and successor of Mahendravarman. 

● Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman Mahamalla/Mamalla. 

● Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. 

● Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas. 

● He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince Manivarma. 

● He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named after him. 

● Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy. 

● He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products. 

● Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his reign. 

● He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to 670 AD.

Administration

 The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. Monarchy was the order of the day. The title „Dharma-Maharaja‟ assumed by the kings show that they exercised their rule righteously. The king was the head of the state, the fountain of honour, judge, and leader of the armed forces. 

The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king. The village is the basic unit of administration. Different types of villages like villages with inter caste population, Brahmadeya and Devadana existed during this period. The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies. Sabha, Urar etc., were the most popular assembles of this period. Every village had got a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana. 

Every village was provided with professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths etc. It appears that the village acted like self sufficient miniature republics in the Pallava period. Entrusting the administration of a smaller territorial to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to be a very important feature of thePallava polity. Land revenue was the major source of income.

 The Pallavas also levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and textiles, draught cattle etc., It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen Tsang that the people were very hard working g and the soil was very fertile, the labourers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.

Religion 

The heterodox religions viz. Buddhism and Jainism were still very active in the Pallava kingdom. It is evident from the testimony of Hieun Tsang that there were hundred Buddhist

monasteries and 10,000 Buddhist monks and nuns belonging to the Manayana schools of Buddhism at Kanchi. Jainism enjoyed popularity in the beginning. 

Most of the Pallava kings were the followers of both Vaishnavism and Saivism. The Pallava kings assumed not only the title “Dharma-Maharaja‟ but also performed the Vedic sacrifices like Agnisthoma, Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices, which were in conformity with the Vedic sacrifices. Thus Buddhism and Jainism lost the royal patronage and mass support.

This paved the way for the rise of Vedic religion. Besides the performance of Vedic sacrifices, the worship of gods Brahma, Vishnu and Siva became popular. From the 7th century onwards the Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known Bhakti movement. The cult of Bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the South Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played a great part in propagating it.

The Vedic tradition was further reinforced by a movement started by Sankaracharya. This movement was aimed at cleaning the Vedic philosophy of its obscurities and its inconsistencies thereby making it both comprehensible and acceptable to the people at large. Sankaracharya achieved fame by advocating Advaita philosophy.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bakthi Movement, which had spread in South India during Sixth and Seventh centuries A.D., made a tremendous impact in the social and cultural life of the people. The term, Bakti means Devotion to God. True Bakti was considered as more valuable than mere rites and rituals. During the Pallava period Alwars and Nayanmars preached the cult of Bakti among the people. There was no caste disparity in the Bakti Movement. Even those who belonged to low-caste had also become Bakti Saints. For example, Nandhanaar, Kaalathi Nayanar Thiruppaanazhalvar belonged to lower caste. Yet, they were treated and respected as saints. Therefore, all castes and communities had equally followed Bakti or devotion to god. There were two important aims for the Bakti Movement. They were:- 1. To meet the challenges posed by Buddhism and Jainism and, 2. To spread Saivism and Vaishnavism.

SHAIVISM

The followers of Lord Siva were known as Saivaites. During the Pallava period, the Saiva saints, Nayanmars had preached Saivism. There were sixty-three Nayanmars. The most important among them were Thirunavukkarasar, Thirugnanasambandar, Sundarar, and Manickavasagar. The hymns composed by the first three were called Thevaram, Manickavasagar composed Thiruvasagam. His hymns were popular for devotional recitation. There were also women saints like Karaikkal Ammaiyar. The other important sects of Saivism were Kalamukhas and Pasupathas.

VAISHNAVISM

The devotees of Lord Vishnu were called Vaishnavaites. Azhavars preached Vaishnavism during the Pallava period. There were twelve Azhavars. Those who lived in the Pallava kingdom were Poigai Azhavar, Pey Azhavar, Bhudhathazhavar and Thirumangai Azhavar. The first three had composed Nanmugan Thiruvanthathi. The other Azhavars like Nammazhavar, Periazhavar and Thirumangai Azhavar also contributed to the growth of Vaishnavism. The only woman among the twelve Azhavars was Andal. She had composed Thiruppavai and Nachiyar Thirumozhi. The hymns of Alwars have been compiled into Nalayira Divya Prabandam. Saivism and Vaishnavism had become popular among the people due to the spread of the Bakthi Movement. Azhavars and Nayanmars had composed their songs in Tamil and contributed to the growth of Tamil literature.

Education and Literature

 The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. The University of Kanchi became the nucleus of learning and intellectualism. It attracted students from different parts of India and abroad. The founder of the Kadamaba dynasty, Mayurasarman, studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Rector of Nalanda University, belonged to Kanchi. The Ghatikas and Mathas were the other Brahmanical educational institutions attached to the Temples. Sanskrit, the language of privileged, became the recognized medium in the Brahamanical institutions of the period. 

Several works in Sanskrit were produced during this period. The Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi, Dasakumaracharita of Dandi and the Mattavilasaprahasana of Mahendravarman I were the best Sanskrit works of the period. 

The Tamil literature had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. Tiruvelluvar, the author of „kural‟ lived during this period. Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated Mahabharata into Tamil. The „Thevaram‟ composed by the Nayanars and „Nalayaradivyaprabhandam‟ composed by the Alvars represent the religious literature of the period. The Tamil devotional saints exploited music and dance to realize the „concept of compassionate God‟. The religious hymns were sung with the accompaniment of music and dance. This became a regular feature in the temple festivals.

Mattavilasa Prahasana- Mahendravarman I- Sanskrit- Means the ‘delight of the drunkards’. Sanskrit farse on Buddhist and Kapalika ascetics

 Kiratarjuniya- Bharavi- Sanskrit- Simhavishnu 

Devaram- Nayanars- Tamil- Saiva literature 

Nalayradivyaprabandam- Alvars- Tamil- Vaishnava literature

Society

• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
• The caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.

Fine Arts

• Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
• The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
• Dance and drama also developed during this period.
• The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.

Art and Architecture

The religious revival of the period gave an impetus to the architectural activity. The contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian Art and Architecture is immense. In fact the history of Dravidian style of Indian Architecture in the south began with the Pallavas. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic Rathas and culminated in structural temples.

The Five Rathas popularly called as the ‘Pancha Pandava Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas)’ at Mamallapuram signifies five different styles of Architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest Architectural master piece of Pallava Art.

The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture. The Mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The sculpture depicting the „Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna‟ at Mamallapuram is a master piece of classical art. Music, Dance and Painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal belonged to the Pallava period.

End of the Pallava Rule

Vikramaditya II ‟s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi may be regarded as the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy over South India. The Pandyas, the western Gangas and the Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter offered his daughter Reva in marriage to former and saved temporarily the collapse of the Pallava Kingdom. The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE. Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) were the other rulers. Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end