Religious movement in ancient india

INTRODUCTION

Sixth century B.C. witnessed many religious movements in different parts of the world. Heraclitus in Eoinia Island, Zoroaster in Persia and Confucius in China preached new doctrines. In India too, we find an upheaval of new ideas leading to the rise of new philosophical tenets and religious sects.

They were too many and too much varied because philosophical speculations ranged from religious speculations and the craving to search for the Truth which the Upanishads had created, brought about its results in this century.

The old Vedic religion had ceased to be a living force and there was widespread discontent against costly religious rituals and bloody sacrifices. Hatred against the social order was prevalent particularly against the pitiable conditions of the Sudras.

The changing features of social and economic life such as the growth of towns; growth of different professions thereby expansion of artisan class and growth of agriculture which all could be possible because of extensive use of iron for producing tools and implements including those of agriculture; and the rapid development of trade and commerce also focussed on the necessity to bring about changes in society and religion.

The craving for search of truth was encouraged by the Vedic religious-texts, the Upanishads themselves. The Upanishads propounded the Gyan Marg (path of knowledge) for attaining Nirvana or Moksha, viz., salvation of soul. Whether soul existed or not? If it existed then what was its nature? What happened after the death of an individual? What was the best course of life for an individual?.

These varied questions were raised by the Upanishads themselves and they gave their answers as well. The Upanishads described that the best course of life for an individual was to get rid from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth leading to the merger of soul with the Brahma, viz., attainment of Nirvana.

They described that it could be possible only by Gyan (attainment of knowledge). The Upanishads upheld that good deeds and performance of Yajnas and sacrifices could help an individual in getting a better next life but not in attaining Nirvana.

Thus, the first one in attacking the one essential feature of the Vedic religion, viz., performance of the Yajnas by sacrifices of human beings or animals were the Upanishads themselves. Besides, by the time of writing the Satpath- Brahamana human sacrifices had become virtually negligible in the Vedic religion.

Therefore, the protest of the Upanishads was primarily against animal sacrifices though indirectly because they simply denied the utility of animal sacrifices for attaining Nirvana. Thus, the Upanishads themselves challenged the basic features of the Vedic religion and emphasized freedom of thought and. thereby, created openings for all sorts of thoughts in religion.

Changed economic circumstances also played an important part in the rise of different religious movements in that age During the later Vedic age, the Aryans had moved towards the east and iron had become known to them which they used not only in the production of their arms but also for manufacturing agricultural tools and other implements. It has been described in the Satpath-Brahamana that the fire-god burnt forests and thus cleared the way of the Aryans to proceed ahead towards this north-east.

HINDUISM

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam. Roughly 95 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies.

BELIEFS

Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).

One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.

One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.

Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and morality.

Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.

Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many are vegetarians.

Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism,

 Sikhism and Jainism.

SYMBOL OF HINDUISM

There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the swastika.

SWASTKA:-   The word swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy" in Sanskrit, and the symbol represents good luck.

OM:-   The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit letters and represents three sounds (a, u and m), which when combined are considered a sacred sound. The om symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.

Holy Books of hinduism

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received by ancient saints and sages.

The Vedas are made up of:

1. The Rig Veda
2. The Samaveda
3. Yajurveda
4. Atharvaveda

Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning or an end.

The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are also considered important texts in Hinduism.

Origins of Hinduism

Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous people living in the region. There’s some debate over who influenced who more during this time.

The period when the Vedas were composed became known as the “Vedic Period” and lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the Vedic Period.

The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.

The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism and Jainism, spread rapidly.

Popularization of Hinduism

Hinduism originally started as a tradition from within the brahmin class, making it difficult for people of lower castes to access, but it gradually grew more popular. Sometime around 1500 to 500 BCE, two epic poems called the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were created and eventually written down in the early centuries of the Common Era. These poems laid out information about Hindu values and gods—Vishnu, for example—through dramatic stories of love and war. When these stories were written down, they spread more quickly and easily throughout India. Another text, the Bhagavad Gita, was a poem that highlighted Hindu values and the possibility of salvation for people who lived those values. The Bhagavad Gita helped popularize Hinduism among lower castes because it asserted that people could achieve salvation by performing their caste duties.

During the Gupta empire—from about 320 to 550 CE—emperors used Hinduism as a unifying religion and helped popularize it by promoting educational systems that included Hindu teachings; they also gave land to brahmins. The Gupta emperors helped make Hinduism the most popular religion on the Indian subcontinent.

BUDDHISM

 Is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.

BELIEFS

Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom. When followers reach this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced nirvana.

There is no belief in a personal god. Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent and that change is always possible. The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality, meditation and wisdom.

Buddhists believe that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. Existence is endless because individuals are reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering throughout many lives.

It is impermanent because no state, good or bad, lasts forever. Our mistaken belief that things can last is a chief cause of suffering.

Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).

Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.

Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes celibacy.

SYMBOL

SWASTIKA:-   

There is no single Buddhist symbol, but a number of images have evolved that represent Buddhist beliefs, including the lotus flower, the eight-spoked dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree and the "Swastika" (an ancient symbol whose name means "well-being" or "good fortune" in Sanskrit). 

Founder of Buddhism

The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, was born circa 563 BCE into a wealthy family. Gautama rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline. After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama became the Buddha, or “enlightened one”. He made this announcement in public at about 528 BCE and gained a group of disciples who became Buddhist monks and traveled throughout northern India spreading his teachings.

Buddhism has a strong individualistic component: everyone has responsibility for their own happiness in life. Buddha presented the Four Noble Truths as guiding principles: there is suffering in life; the cause of suffering is desire; ending desire means ending suffering; and following a controlled and moderate lifestyle will end desire, and therefore end suffering.

In order to achieve these goals, the Buddha presented the Noble Eightfold Path: right belief, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right occupation, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samadhi—or meditation. According to Buddhist practice, following the Noble Eightfold Path will ultimately result in being liberated from samsara, the cycle of rebirth and suffering.

Many followers of this path to enlightenment participated in an emerging Buddhist monastic tradition. Monasticism is a religious way of life which involves leaving behind worldly pursuits and devoting oneself to spiritual activity.

HISTORY OF BUDDHISM

When Gautama passed away around 483 B.C., his followers began to organize a religious movement. Buddha’s teachings became the foundation for what would develop into Buddhism.

In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka the Great, the Mauryan Indian emperor, made Buddhism the state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries were built, and missionary work was encouraged.

Over the next few centuries, Buddhism began to spread beyond India. The thoughts and philosophies of Buddhists became diverse, with some followers interpreting ideas differently than others.

In the sixth century, the Huns (The Huns were nomadic warriors who terrorized much of Europe and the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. They were impressive horsemen best known for their astounding military achievements.) invaded India and destroyed hundreds of Buddhist monasteries, but the intruders were eventually driven out of the country.

Types of Buddhism

Theravada Buddhism:-  Prevalent in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma.

Mahayana Buddhism:-   Prevalent in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam.

Tibetan Buddhism:-     Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and northern India.

Dharma:-  Buddha’s teachings are known as “dharma.” He taught that wisdom, kindness, patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues.

Specifically, all Buddhists live by five moral precepts, which prohibit:

• Killing living things
• Taking what is not given
• Sexual misconduct
• Lying
• Using drugs or alcohol

Four Noble Truths

• The truth of suffering (dukkha)
• The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)
• The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)
• The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

Eightfold Path

• Right understanding (Samma ditthi)
• Right thought (Samma sankappa)
• Right speech (Samma vaca)
• Right action (Samma kammanta)
• Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
• Right effort (Samma vayama)
• Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
• Right concentration (Samma samadhi)

Buddhist Holy Book

1. Tipitaka: These texts, known as the “three baskets,” are thought to be the earliest collection of Buddhist writings.
2. Sutras: There are more than 2,000 sutras, which are sacred teachings embraced mainly by Mahayana Buddhists.
3. The Book of the Dead: This Tibetan text describes the stages of death in detail.

JAINISM

Jainism doesn't have a single founder. The truth has been revealed at different times by a tirthankara, which means a teacher who 'makes a ford' i.e. shows the way. Other religions call such a person a 'prophet'.

As great omniscient teachers, Tirthankaras accomplished the highest spiritual goal of existence and then teach others how to achieve it.

In what Jains call the 'present age' there have been 24 tirthankaras - although there is little evidence for the existence of most of these.  

Tirthankaras

A tirthankara appears in the world to teach the way to moksha, or LIBERATION.

A Tirthankar is not an incarnation of the god. He is an ordinary soul that is born as a human and attains the states of a Tirthankar as a result of intense practices of penance, equanimity and meditation. As such, the Tirthankar is not defined as an Avatar (god-incarnate) but is the ultimate pure developed state of the soul.

Tirthankaras were not founders of any religion, but great omniscient teachers who lived at various times in man's cultural history. They accomplished the highest spiritual goal of existence and then taught their contemporaries the way to reach it by crossing over to the safe shores of spiritual purity.

Each new tirthankara preaches the same basic Jain philosophy, but they give the Jain way of life subtly different forms in order to suit the age and the culture in which they teach.

The 24 tirthankaras during this present age are:

Adinatha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana, Sumati, Padmaprabha, Suparshva, Chandraprabha, Suvidhi, Shital, Shreyansa, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Shanti, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, Muni Suvrata, Nami, Nemi, Parshva and Mahavira.

BELIEFS

1. AHIMSHA:-  Jains believe that the only way to save one's own soul is to protect every other soul, and so the most central Jain teaching, and the heart of Jain ethics, is that of ahimsa (non-violence).
2. SATYA :-  This vow requires total truthfulness not only by not Telling lie, but by always speaking the truth.
3. ASTEYA :-  This vow demands total honesty in behaviour; not only must you not steal things, you must not acquire things other than by totally honest means.
4. APARIGRAHA :-  Jain monks have virtually no possessions, while lay Jains try to minimise their possessions.
5. BRAHMCHARYA:-  Chaste living is important to Jains because sexual indulgence gets in the way of the road to liberation.

The Five Vows direct one's thoughts and behavior since it is believed that, as one thinks, so will one do. It is not enough, therefore, to simply abstain from violence or lying or stealing; one must not even think of such things. If one adheres to this discipline, one will escape the cycle of samsara and achieve liberation. Once one has accomplished this, one becomes a tirthankara, a “ford builder” (as in, one who builds a ford or bridge over a river) who can show others how to securely cross the currents of life by shedding desire, freeing one's self from ignorance, and refusing the temptations of the world. In Jainism, suffering is caused by ignorance of the true nature of reality, and liberation is achieved through spiritual awakening and then living the truth one has realized.

TEACHINGS

• Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.
• He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
• He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul does not.
• One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
• Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
• Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
• Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity, and self-mortification were expounded.

MAHAVIRA

The twenty-fourth Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama (Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C. His father, Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan. His mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess. Vardhamana was given a good education and was married to Yashoda. He had a daughter by her. At the age of thirty, Vardhamana left his home and became an ascetic. At first he wore a single garment which he abandoned after 13 months and began to wander as a 'naked monk'. For twelve years he lived the life of an ascetic following severe austerities. In the 13th year of his asceticism, at the age of 42, he attained the 'supreme knowledge'. He was later known as 'Mahavir' (the supreme hero), or 'Jina' (the conqueror). He was also hailed as 'Nugrantha' (free from fetters). For the next thii years he moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala, Magadha and further east. He wandered for eight months in a year and spent the four months of the rainy season in some famous town of eastern India. He often visited the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna district at the age of 72 .

SECTS

Jains have been partitioned into two significant groups: Digambara and Svetambara. The division happened for the most part because of famine in Magadha. This constrained a gathering drove by Bhadrabahu to move South India. During 12 years of famine, the gathering in South India adheres to the severe practices. The gathering in Magadha received a progressively careless disposition. They began wearing white garments.

After the finish of famine, the Southern gathering returned to Magadha. The changed practices prompted the division of Jainism into two factions

Digambara

• Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
• Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha, and Brahmacharya).
• Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
• Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
• Major Sub-Sects

1. Mula Sangh
2. Bisapantha
3. Terapantha
4. Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha

• Minor Sub-Sets

1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha

Svetambara

• Monks wear white clothes.
• Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
• Believe women can achieve liberation.
• Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
• Major Sub-Sects

1. Murtipujaka
2. Sthanakvasi
3. Terapanthi

Jain Text 

Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras)

• Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the sacred books of the Jain religion.
• They are written in the Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.

Non‑Agam Literature

• Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars.
• They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

SYMBOL

 

The outline of the symbol is defined as the universe (Lok). The lower part of  the symbol represents the seven hells (Naraki). The middle part of the universe contains the Earth and the planets (Manushyalok). The upper part contains the heavenly abodes (Devlok) of all the celestial beings and abode of the Siddhas (Siddhashila). Jains believe that this universe was neither created by anyone, nor can it be destroyed by anyone. It may change its form, but otherwise, it has always been and will always be here.

The raised hand means stop. The word in the center of the wheel is “Ahimsa”. Ahimsa means non-violence. Between these two, they remind us to stop for a minute and think twice before doing anything. This gives us a chance to scrutinize our activities to be sure that they will not hurt anyone by our words, thoughts, or actions. We are also not supposed to ask or encourage others to take part in any harmful activity. The wheel in the hand shows that if we are not careful and ignore these warnings and carry on violent activities, then just as the wheel goes round and round, we will go round and round through the cycles of birth and death.

The four arms of the swastika remind us that during the cycles of birth and death we may be born into any one of the four destinies: heavenly beings, human beings, animal beings, (including birds, bugs, and plants) and hellish beings. Our aim should be the liberation and not the rebirth. To show how we can do this, the swastika reminds us that we should become the pillars of the four fold Jain Sangh, then only can we achieve liberation. The four pillars of the Jain Sangh are sädhus, sädhvis, shrävaks, and shrävikäs. This means that first, we should strive to be a true shrävaks or shrävikäs, and when we can overcome our social attachments, we should renounce the worldly life and follow the path of a sädhu or sädhvi to be liberated.

The three dots above the swastika represent the three jewels of Jainism: Samyak Darshan (Right Faith), Samyak Jnan (Right Knowledge), and Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct). We should have all three: right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct together, then only can we achieve the liberation. The right knowledge means having the knowledge that soul and body are separate and that the soul, not the body attains the salvation. The right faith means one must have faith in what is told by Jinas, who were omniscient. The right conduct means that our actions should be void of attachment and hatred.

At the very top part of the Jain Universe symbol is a small curved arc. This arc represents the abode of the Siddhas. It is known as the Siddhashila. It is the final resting place of the liberated souls. The dot represents a siddha. In order to achieve this stage, a soul must destroy all attached karmas. Every living being should strive for this state of the Salvation or Liberation.

Nature of Religious Movements:

There were differences in these varied religious philosophies or movements. Yet, there were certain similarities among them. Except Bhagvatism and Saivism, which were simply reform-movements of the Vedic-religion, these all had similarities which were best represented by Buddhism and Jainism, the most popular religions of that age.

Particularly all of them opposed the unchallenged supremacy of the Vedas and Purohit-class and performing of Yajnas and animal- sacrifices; they claimed a superior social status for the Kshatriyas’, emphasized that one’s Varna should be determined not by birth but by deeds declared that observing a moral life and not performance of rituals was necessary for the development of an individual; and, pointed out that Nirvana was possible by any individual without distinction of Varna, class, caste or sex.

Besides, these preached that pursuance of the life of a Sanyasin was necessary to attain Nirvana. The Vedic-religion too had the provision of the life of a Sanyasin but primarily it was based on family-life and Karma (deeds) while several other sects besides Buddhism and Jainism upheld that the life of a Sanyasin was the best and the only way to Nirvana.