SANGAM AGE (3rd BC - 3rd AD)

Introduction

The period between the 1st century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. in Southern India is known as Sangam Period. It has been named after the Sangam academies during that period.

According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.

1. The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
2. The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
3. The Third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

Polity

Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period. The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or avai. The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar, the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras. The imperial court or Avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials. The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).

 The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree). Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury. Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling. 

The cholas

• The Cholas Kingdom was situated between the Pennar and the Velar rivers were the most powerful of all three kingdoms.
• Their chief centre of political power was at Uraiyar, a place famous for cotton trade.
• In the middle of second century B.C., a Chola king named Elara Conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years. He was the first important Chola king.
• A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A.D. when their greatest and most famous king Karikala, or the man with charred leg, who founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.
• Puhar or Kaveripattanam was Chola capital. Puhar was also a great centre of trade and commerce.
• Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.
• The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.

The cheras

• The Cheras or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas covering some portions of Tamil Nadu also.
• The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
• Nedunjeral Adan, the first known Chera king, earned the title of ‘Udiyanjiral’.
• He also bore the title of ‘Imayavarambam’ or he who had the Himalayas for his boundary.’
• Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera, according to the Chera poets, was the great Chera king. It is said that he had invaded the north and crossed the Ganga.
• He build a temple for Kannagi, the Goddess of Chastity. The worship of Kannagi is known as the Pattini-cult, which was stabilized by him.
• After the second century A.D., the Cehra power declined, and nothing of its history until the eighth century A.D. is known.
• The capital of the Cheras was Vanji or Kaur.
• The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also build a temple of Augustus there.

The pandyas

• The Pandyan kingdom occupied the south-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian Peninsula, with Madurai as it capital.
• The Pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule South India and are mentioned in Kautilya’s Arhasastra and Megasthenes’ Indica.
• The Sangam age started form a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty kings in this dynasty.
• Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many Sangam texts on account of a ‘deluge’ which compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Ten-Madurai to Kapatapuram and then from there to Madurai on the Vaigai.
• The most prominent among them was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital.
• Another king was Madaranjeral Irumporai who sent embassies to Roman emperor Augusts and performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes such as Valuti and Celiyan.
• The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the Cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods from their maritime trade with countries further west.
• The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai
• They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
• The Pandyas profited from trade with the Roman Empire.
• Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
• After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.
• Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590-620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the Pandyas back to the path of glory.
• The last known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan a viceroy of Muhmmad-bin-Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.

Economy of the Sangam Age

 Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop. Ragi, Sugarcane, Cotton, Pepper, Ginger, Turmeric, Cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country. The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.

 There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak during the Sangam period. Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake. There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur. Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age.

 The Sangam literature, Greek and Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed information on this subject. Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place. Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system. External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.

After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade. Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu. They reveal the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman traders in the Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age were Cotton, Fabrics, Spices like Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom, Cinnamon and Turmeric, Ivory products, Pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.

Sangam Literature

The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai .

1. Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar, it is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
2. Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
3. The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai  and  Malaipadukadam .
4. Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher. 
5. The two epics Silappathigaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.

Other sources

1. the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade contacts between the West and South India.
2. Also, the Ashokan inscriptions mention about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of Mauryan empire.
3. Another inscription, Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil kingdoms.

Sangam Society

 

Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.

 

          Kurinji - chief deity was Murugan - chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.

 

          Mullai - chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) - chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.

 

          Marudam - chief deity Indira - chief occupation, agriculture.

 

          Neydal - chief deity Varunan - chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.

 

          Palai - chief deity Korravai - chief occupation robbery.

 

Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar. The ruling class was called arasar. Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars carried on trade and commerce. The vellalas were agriculturists. Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

 

Position of Women

 

There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the Sangam age. Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.

 

Religion

 

The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.

Sangam Administration

The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. Though hereditary monarch was the prevailing form of government, dis­puted successions and civil wars were not unknown. The court of the crowned monarch was called avai.

The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu) was accepted and acted on. The King’s birthday (Perunal) was celebrated every year. Kings assumed several titles. For example, the Pandyas were known as Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.etc the Cholas called them­selves Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras had titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on.

The royal emblem of the Pandyas was the carp (fish), the bow of the Cheras and of the Cholas was the tiger. The sabha or manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The king was assisted by a large body of officials, who were divided into five assem­blies:

(1) Amaichchar or ministers,

(2) Purohitas or priests,

(3) Senapati or military commanders,

(4) Dutar or envoys and

(5) Arrar or spies.

Provincial and Local Administration

The entire kingdom was called mandalam. The Chola mandalam, Pandya mandalam and the Chera mandalam were the original major mandalam. Below the mandalam was a major division, nadu (province). The ur was a town which was variously described as a big village (perar), a small village (sirur) or an old village (mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puharwas the harbour area.

The administration of nadus was generally carried on by hereditary chiefs. The village was the fundamental unit of administration which was administered by local assemblies called manrams.

Revenue administration

The commonest and possibly the largest source of revenue was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the agricultural proudce, claimed and collected by the king,is not specified. The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as measure of grain. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar.

Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (irai) constituted a considerable part of royal resources. Trade local and long-distance, constituted a very important source of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties were ulgu or sungum. The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.

Military Administration

Apparently out of the taxes collected from the peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an important part in war. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom.

The institution of virakkal or nadukul (hero-stone), which was a practice of erecting monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent at that time. The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram was also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great tree in his palace as a symbol of power.

Fine Arts

 

Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age. Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles. The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed. A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

End of the Sangam Age 

Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. We have little information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule.